Are seafaring ancestors part of your family heritage? Perhaps they worked aboard a ship during the age of sail that carried tobacco in the colonial era, helped bring immigrants to America on a steamship during the 1800s, or stepped in to support the U.S. military during one of the world wars.

Looking at the maritime industry across the different eras of U.S. history—paired with historical documents like ship crew records and other maritime employment records—can be a fascinating voyage into your family’s story.

Maritime Employment in the Age of Sail

Colonial American ports gained economic prominence as the 1700s progressed, due to the continent's growing role in global trade and colonial expansion. Ships carrying a steady flow of imports, exports, and passengers brought wealth to America. Immigrants from Europe arrived to settle in the colonies; manufactured goods like furniture and textiles were sent to the colonies, too. Enslaved people were forcibly transported to provide labor. Common exports shipped to Great Britain, the West Indies, and Southern Europe included raw materials such as indigo, tobacco, rice, corn, fish, and lumber.

Whaling and fishing crews during this period could be fairly diverse. They often included Native Americans as well as enslaved men in the South, and Native Americans, freemen, and escaped enslaved people in the North.

During the age of sail, women weren’t allowed to work on merchant ships, unless through marriage to the captain or because they were the captain’s daughter.

What Was Life Like as a Seaman in the 1700s?

If your distant relative was a mariner in the 18th century, he likely lived a tough life whether he was a cabin boy, able seaman, or captain. Mariners on long voyages during the 18th century lived with a poor diet. Fresh food didn’t last long, so seamen were at risk of malnutrition and conditions like scurvy, which is caused by a lack of Vitamin C.

Sickness was common. Most drank weak ale, as fresh water was limited on long sea voyages. Daily existence also involved constant exposure to the elements, hard labor, and strict discipline. Instilling fear and doling out harsh punishments like flogging was seen as necessary to maintain order and prevent mutiny.

To help sailors maintain their focus, rhythmic work songs—shanties—might accompany physically demanding, repetitive tasks. But during their off-duty time, sailors could enjoy telling each other stories and playing cards or dice.

For many, sea life was borne from financial need, rather than dreams of the open ocean—although pay was better on board merchant ships than naval ships.

Job Roles in the Age of Sail

During America’s Colonial Era, job titles for seamen’s roles often had French and Anglo-Saxon origins. Men who performed physical labor had titles with Anglo-Saxon roots (like boatswain), while officer titles (like capitan) had French roots. The distinction suggested a hierarchy or class difference.

Wind-powered sailing vessels also needed a variety of people in order to function, like carpenters, sailmakers, cooks, surgeons, and chaplains, Your seafaring ancestor in the colonial era may have held one of these roles:

• Masters or captains were a ship’s commanding officer. They were also in charge of navigation.
• First, second, and third mates helped with the overall handling of the ship, including navigation. The first mate was considered a captain or in training.
• Boatswains were responsible for maintaining the ship’s equipment, such as the sails, rope, and rigging.
• Quartermasters were charged with steering the ship, stowing ballast, and overseeing the delivery and placement of provisions.
• Able seamen and ordinary seamen differed in age and experience. An able seaman was usually over 20 years old and had five-plus years of experience at sea; an ordinary seaman was at least 18 years old, but not yet an expert sailor. An "ordinary" was the lowest seaman rating on the ship.
• Powder monkeys carried gunpowder to crews manning the cannons. Boys as young as seven were used because they could fit into small, cramped spaces.
• Cabin boys helped the cook, delivered meals to the seamen and officers, and carried messages to and from officers and other crew members.

Employment in the Golden Age of American Maritime Trade

Advances in shipbuilding during the 1800s meant significantly faster ocean crossings. The Mayflower took 66 days to cross the Atlantic in 1620; the steamship Great Western did it in 15.5 days in 1838; and by the 1860s, transatlantic trips took roughly 8-9 days.

Ship size also increased during this period. In the early 1800s, wooden ships might carry a maximum of 200 passengers, but iron-hulled ships of the mid-1800s could carry up to 1,500 passengers and a lot more cargo.

Merchant ships continued to be the lifeblood of American transportation throughout the 19th century, as trade and immigration boomed across the global East and West. Likewise, commercial shipping and passenger traffic thrived in the Great Lakes’ regions and along waterways like the Mississippi River.

The whaling industry saw its heyday between 1840 and 1860, as demand increased for whale oil (for lamps) and "bone" to make corsets and dress hoops. New England whaling was especially important in seaports like Nantucket and New Bedford. Crews typically included a mix of white U.S. citizens, Native American, Black, European men, as well as islanders from the Azores, Cape Verde, and Pacific Islands.

Women still rarely worked on merchant ships, except under extreme circumstances, like the illness or death of a husband, the captain.

What Was Life Like as a Mariner in the 1800s?

The advent of tinned food, better navigational tools, and improvements in medicine made some improvements to sailors' lives, but injuries, illnesses caused by unsanitary conditions, and exposure to diseases were still common.

And as the focus of daily tasks for a boatswain or ordinary seaman shifted from sail navigation to machinery management, new dangers emerged in the form of boiler explosions on steam-powered boats and ships.

Being a crew member on a whaling ship could also be dangerous. Herman Melville's Moby Dick is based on the true story of the Essex whaling ship that was attacked and sunk by a sperm whale.

Mariners still found ways to entertain and distract themselves from tedious or hard labor, as they did in earlier times. Music, in the form of shanties, continued to be a more pleasurable way to keep sailors working in unison on tasks that were monotonous.

Seamen Jobs in the 1800s

As sails started to be replaced by steam-powered engines, and as ships grew in capacity, seamen jobs became more specialized. New roles emerged, like "engineer" and "machinist." Those who worked in the maritime industry served in one of these categories, which generally applied to merchant mariners as well those in U.S. naval forces.

• Commissioned officers often had advanced levels of education. They were officially appointed to their positions; patronage or political connections could be involved. Titles in this category included captain, lieutenant, surgeon, chaplain, purser, and surgeon’s mates.
• Warranted officers usually had high levels of hands-on training. They, too, received official appointments or warrants. And like commissioned officers, patronage or political connections might play a part in the issuance of their warrant. Sample titles: master, boatswain, gunner, carpenters, sailmakers, and midshipmen.
• Enlisted, non-commissioned, or petty officers were appointed by the ship’s captain. ("Petty comes from the French petit, meaning "small.") They may have earned their officer title by gaining significant experience on board as well as the captain’s respect. Titles in this category: clerk, master-at-arms, corporal, steward, boatswain's mate, and armorer.
• Enlisted men such as an ordinary seaman, able seaman, and boy, did much of the day-to-day hard physical labor.

Whether your ancestor worked on a medium-sized packet ship during the 1830s, a steamboat in the 1860s, or a passenger liner in the 1880s, you may want to take a closer look at job roles specific to their type of ship and time period in order to better understand their duties. Ranks, ratings, and titles changed regularly during the 1800s.

Maritime Employment in the 20th Century

The 20th century saw dramatic changes, as technological innovations, expanded ship capacities, the formation of unions, and tourism via ocean liners gained popularity. Global conflicts also reached epic levels.

The official establishment of the U.S. Merchant Marines took place in 1938. Sailors from all walks of life were invited to join—regardless of race—unlike the U.S. military, which was still segregated. Women, however, were not allowed into the U.S. Merchant Marines until 1974.

While merchant marines’ primary focus related to commercial activity, they shifted to wartime activities, as needed, during both World Wars.

During wartime in the 1940s, women found maritime-related work in the shipyards. The great need for workers opened opportunities to Black, white, Latina, and Asian women.

What Was Life Like as a Seaman in the 1900s?

Although conditions on board had improved, working conditions were still very difficult. While regional unions began to form in the 1880s—with some successes—it wasn’t until the Seafarers International Union was formally chartered in 1938 that real progress was made in for better workers' rights, higher wages, improved working conditions, and shorter working hours. Beginning with World War II, union protections included hazard pay for those who sailed into war zones.

Maritime Job Roles in the 1900s

As more complex navigation and operational systems, came into being, new specialized crew member roles emerged, such as:

• Chief engineer
• Assistant engineers
• Electrical officer
• Radio officer
• Helmsman

Merchant Marines During Times of War

Although the U.S. Merchant Marines didn’t exist as an official service until 1938, merchant mariners’ wartime activities date back to the American Revolution. In fact, they played pivotal roles in major U.S. conflicts throughout its history.

At the start of the American Revolution, the Continental Navy had only 27 ships compared to Britain's 270. This imbalance in naval power prompted American merchant mariners to join the war effort as privateers. About 1,700 Letters of Marque were issued by the Continental Congress—documents that authorized attacks on enemy vessels by private parties, but under regulated conditions. During the American Revolutionary War, privateers captured or destroyed about 600 British ships and disrupted their military supply chain.

• Bonus: Read about a seafarer’s wartime experience in this digitized book on Ancestry^®: History of maritime Connecticut during the American revolution, 1775-1783.

During the Civil War, merchant ships again moonlighted as warships. Private ships chartered by Union and Confederate forces served their respective military goals. Union forces used hundreds of merchant ships to transport men and supplies; the Confederate government issued Letters of Marque to privateers to seize ships.

American merchant mariners made significant contributions during World War I and World War II. They transported critical supplies, troops, and equipment overseas. At the same time, merchant ships were prime targets for enemy naval and aerial attacks. During World War I, German U-boats sank 200 American vessels, causing a great loss of life.

• World War I List of Merchant Seamen Lost: This record collection includes details like the name of the ship the "lost" seaman sailed on, the route he took, and the date and description of the events surrounding his death.

World War II saw almost 250,000 merchant mariners serve as part of the U.S. military war effort. More than 9,000 of them lost their lives during this conflict.

Why Did Sailors Need Protection Certificates?

During the colonial period, and especially during times of war, sailors of any nationality were sometimes forcibly conscripted to serve on British naval ships—with government approval. The practice was called impressment. To try to shield its citizens, the U.S. government began issuing documents known as seamen's protection certificates. These served as identification and proved the holder's U.S. citizenship.

Historical seamen’s protection certificates contain fascinating personal details like place of birth, physical appearance, age, and even descriptions of scars or tattoos unique. Some even contain photographs of the applicant.

Here are two sample Ancestry collections that focus on different states or specific ports:

• U.S., Applications for Seaman's Protection Certificates, 1916-1940
• U.S., Citizenship Affidavits of US-born Seamen at Select Ports, 1792-1869

Ship Crew Lists on Ancestry^®

These types of documents can provide interesting tidbits of information, like ports they embarked from and the routes they took. And while some of these lists also provide information about passengers, they also contain information about crew members. Be aware that airplane records might be included in 20th-century records, so check the record description before you dive into a collection.

Of the more than 75 collection in this category, two of the larger ones include:

• U.S., Departing Passenger and Crew Lists (1914-1966)
• U.S., Select Crew Lists and Manifests (1903-1962)

Bonus: Once you locate your ancestor in the historical maritime records, see if you can find it in Passenger Ships and Images.

Tracing Merchant Marine Records

One of several historical maritime employment records specific to merchant mariners is:

• U.S. Merchant Marine Applications for License of Officers (1914-1949): Might your ancestor have applied for a license as a master or captain, pilot, engineer, or motor vessel operator? This collection includes letters of recommendation, photos, and physical descriptions.

As you explore the record collections, you might discover that your ancestor first served in the U.S. military. Military records can help you unearth information about his earlier career.

Navigating Your Maritime Heritage With Ancestry

Dive deep into your family’s maritime roots and uncover the stories of your seafaring ancestors. The records outlined above are a tiny sample of the vast database available at Ancestry. Sign up for a free trial today and gain increased access to the record collections.

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